Definition and History of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Definition and History of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is the  linguistic theory that the semantic structure of a language shapes or limits the ways in which a speaker forms conceptions of the world. It came about in 1929. The theory is named after the American anthropological linguist Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and his student Benjamin Whorf (1897–1941). It is also known as the  theory of linguistic relativity, linguistic relativism, linguistic determinism, Whorfian hypothesis, and Whorfianism. History of the Theory The idea that a persons native language determines how he or she thinks was popular among behaviorists of the 1930s and on until cognitive psychology theories came about, beginning in the 1950s and increasing in influence in the 1960s. (Behaviorism taught that behavior is a result of external conditioning and doesnt take feelings, emotions, and thoughts into account as affecting behavior. Cognitive psychology studies mental processes such as creative thinking, problem-solving, and attention.) Author Lera Boroditsky gave some background on ideas about the connections between languages and thought: The question of whether languages shape the way we think goes back centuries; Charlemagne proclaimed that to have a second language is to have a second soul. But the idea went out of favor with scientists when  Noam Chomskys theories of language gained popularity in the 1960s and 70s. Dr. Chomsky proposed that there is a  universal grammar  for all human languages- essentially, that languages dont really differ from one another in significant ways....  (Lost in Translation. The Wall Street Journal, July 30, 2010) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was taught in courses through the early 1970s and had become widely accepted as truth, but then it fell out of favor. By the 1990s, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was left for dead, author Steven Pinker wrote. The cognitive revolution in psychology, which made the study of pure thought possible, and a number of studies showing meager effects of language on concepts, appeared to kill the concept in the 1990s... But recently it has been resurrected, and neo-Whorfianism is now an active research topic in  psycholinguistics. (The Stuff of Thought. Viking, 2007) Neo-Whorfianism is essentially a weaker version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and says that language  influences  a speakers view of the world but does not inescapably determine it. The Theorys Flaws One big problem with the original Sapir-Whorf hypothesis stems from the idea that if a persons language has no word for a particular concept, then that person would not be able to understand that concept, which is untrue.  Language doesnt necessarily control humans ability to reason or have an emotional response to something or some idea. For example, take the German word  sturmfrei, which essentially is the feeling when you have the whole house to yourself because your parents or roommates are away. Just because English doesnt have a single word for the idea doesnt mean that Americans cant understand the concept. Theres also the chicken and egg problem with the theory. Languages, of course, are human creations, tools we invent and hone to suit our needs,  Boroditsky continued. Simply showing that speakers of different languages think differently doesnt tell us whether its language that shapes thought or the other way around.

Grumman F4F Wildcat - World War II

Grumman F4F Wildcat - World War II F4F Wildcat - Specifications (F4F-4): General Length: 28 ft. 9 in. Wingspan: 38 ft. Height: 9 ft. 2.5 in. Wing Area: 260 sq. ft. Empty Weight: 5,760 lbs. Loaded Weight: 7,950 lbs. Crew: 1 Performance Power Plant: 1 Ãâ€" Pratt Whitney R-1830-86 double-row radial engine, 1,200 hp Range: 770 miles Max Speed: 320 mph Ceiling: 39,500 ft. Armament Guns: 6 x 0.50 in. M2 Browning machine guns Bombs: 2 Ãâ€" 100 lb bombs and/or 2 Ãâ€" 58 gallon drop tanks F4F Wildcat - Design Development: In 1935, the US Navy issued a call for a new fighter to replace its fleet of Grumman F3F biplanes. Responding, Grumman initially developed another biplane, the XF4F-1 which was an enhancement of the F3F line. Comparing the XF4F-1 with the Brewster XF2A-1, the Navy elected to move forward with the latter, but asked Grumman to rework their design. Returning to the drawing board, Grummans engineers completely redesigned the aircraft (XF4F-2), transforming it into a monoplane featuring large wings for greater lift and a higher speed than the Brewster. Despite these changes, the Navy decided to move forward with the Brewster after a fly-off at Anacostia in 1938. Working on their own, Grumman continued to modify the design. Adding the more powerful Pratt Whitney R-1830-76 Twin Wasp engine, expanding the wing size, and modifying the tailplane, the new XF4F-3 proved capable of 335 mph. As the XF4F-3 greatly surpassed the Brewster in terms of performance, the Navy granted a contract to Grumman to move the new fighter into production with 78 aircraft ordered in August 1939. F4F Wildcat - Operational History: Entering service with VF-7 and VF-41 in December 1940, the F4F-3 was equipped with four .50 cal. machine guns mounted in its wings. While production continued for the US Navy, Grumman offered a Wright R-1820 Cyclone 9-powered variant of the fighter for export. Ordered by the French, these aircraft were not complete by the fall of France in mid-1940. As a result, the order was taken over by the British who used the aircraft in the Fleet Air Arm under the name Martlet. Thus it was a Martlet that scored the types first combat kill when one downed a German Junkers Ju 88 bomber over Scapa Flow on December 25, 1940. Learning from British experiences with the F4F-3, Grumman began introducing a series of changes to the aircraft including folding wings, six machine guns, improved armor, and self-sealing fuel tanks. While these improvements slightly hampered the new F4F-4s performance, they improved pilot survivability and increased the number that could be carried aboard American aircraft carriers. Deliveries of the Dash Four began in November 1941. A month earlier, the fighter officially received the name Wildcat. At the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the US Navy and Marine Corps possessed 131 Wildcats in eleven squadrons. The aircraft quickly came to prominence during the Battle of Wake Island (December 8-23, 1941), when four USMC Wildcats played a key role in the heroic defense of the island. During the next year, the fighter provided defensive cover for American planes and ships during the strategic victory at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the decisive triumph at the Battle of Midway. In addition to carrier use, the Wildcat was an important contributor to Allied success in the Guadalcanal Campaign. Though not as nimble as its main Japanese opponent, the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, the Wildcat quickly earned a reputation for its ruggedness and ability to withstand shocking amounts of damage while still remaining airborne. Learning quickly, American pilots developed tactics to deal with the Zero which utilized the Wildcats high service ceiling, greater ability to power dive, and heavy armament. Group tactics were also devised, such as the Thach Weave which allowed Wildcat formations to counter a diving attack by Japanese aircraft. In mid-1942, Grumman ended Wildcat production in order to focus on its new fighter, the F6F Hellcat. As a result, manufacture of the Wildcat was passed to General Motors. Though the fighter was supplanted by the F6F and F4U Corsair on most American fast carriers by mid-1943, its small size made it ideal for use aboard escort carriers. This allowed the fighter to remain in both American and British service through the end of the war. Production ended in fall 1945, with a total of 7,885 aircraft built. While the F4F Wildcat often receives less notoriety than its later cousins and possessed a less-favorable kill-ratio, it is important to note that the aircraft bore the brunt of the fighting during the critical early campaigns in the Pacific when Japanese air power was at its peak. Among the notable American pilots who flew the Wildcat were Jimmy Thach, Joseph Foss, E. Scott McCuskey, and Edward Butch OHare. Selected Sources Military Factory: F4F WildcatChuckhawks: F4F Wildcat

Control System Project for A Car Wash System Assignment

Control System Project for A Car Wash System - Assignment Example Self-generating sensors convert energy for a particular domain to another. The output signal, in this case, turns out to be zero since the signal itself is the only energy applied. For this reason, the sensor is referred to the as self-generating transducer. Self-generating transducers have no output and hence there is no offset as depicted in figure 1 below (Langereis, 1999). This aspect the reason for choosing the thermocouple sensors. Only the slope needs to be known. Â  This group of sensors refers to transducers consisting of devices into which energy could be applied by a specific source. The energy is then modulated using a chemical or physical parameter. Typical examples include the Pt-100 thermo-resistive temperature sensors and pH sensing ISFET. In the case of these sensors, it is possible to eliminate the offset through measuring of the output based on another element that is hardly sensitive to this measured parameter (Kissinger, Hart, & Adams, 1973). In this regard, a zero output would imply that all the conditions in the measuring device equal the conditions at the other device (Langereis, 1999). The choice of these sensors is thus based on the possibility to eliminate undesired signals such as unstable references. The Wheatstone bridge shown below is the most applicable differential set-up in case. Â  The sensor-actuator system is one of the commonest causes of integrated systems and may involve a smart use of data obtained using several sensors. While a typical integration may involve the joining of various structures, it can also involve the integration in data interpretation.

Design of Delay Unit Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Design of Delay Unit - Lab Report Example This means that the pin will deliver only 200mA Pin 6 – this is the threshold pin of the chip. This pin detects two thirds of the rail voltage for it to make a LOW state output only if pin two is in HIGH state. This pin contains a very high impedance and triggers at about 1uA. A 555 timer based oscillator is a circuit that generates highly and clear free running waveforms. The output frequency of these waveforms can be adjusted by connecting an RC circuit with one capacitor and two resistors. This circuits is a type of the general relaxation oscillator which generates square waveforms that are stable. These waveforms can have a fixed frequency of about 500 kHz or it can have duty cycles that are varying from fifty to a hundred percent. Unlike monostable circuits that stops after the pre-set time has elapsed, this oscillator circuit has a re-triggering mechanism achieved by interfacing the trigger input pin two and pin six which is the threshold voltage. This makes the device t o be an astable oscillator circuit. In the above oscillator circuit, pin two and pin six are connected together. This allows the circuit tio have a self-triggering mechanism in each operation cycle. This makes the circuit’s operation a free running oscillator. This circuit is also known as voltage-to-frequency converter. This is because its output frequency can be varied by varying the applied input voltage. These waveforms can have a fixed frequency of about 500 kHz or it can have duty cycles that are varying from fifty to a hundred percent.

Patient Safety in Rural Nursing Because of Nursing Shortage Essay Example for Free

Patient Safety in Rural Nursing Because of Nursing Shortage Essay The United States is in the midst of a nursing shortage that is being increasingly discussed in the context of declining healthcare facilities in the nation. Over 1 in 7 hospitals (15%) report a severe RN nursing shortage with more than 20% of their nursing positions vacant and 80%-85% of hospitals report that they have a nurse shortage This shortage is predicted to intensify over the next decade or two as nurses belonging to the generation of baby boomers retire. The Nursing Management Aging Workforce Survey released in July 2006 by the Bernard Hodes Group reveals that 55% of surveyed nurses and nurse managers reported their intention to retire between 2011 and 2020 (AACN, 2006). In April 2006, officials with the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) released projections that the nations nursing shortage would grow to more than one million nurses by the year 2020 (HRSA, 2003). Nursing colleges and universities are struggling to expand enrollment levels. In the report titled â€Å"What is Behind HRSAs Projected Supply, Demand, and Shortage of Registered Nurses? † analysts show that all 50 states will experience a shortage of nurses to varying degrees by the year 2015 (AACN, 2006). Factors driving the growth in demand for nurses include: an 18 % increase in the population; a larger proportion of elderly persons requiring proportionally higher levels of medical care; advances in medical technology that heighten the need for nurses; an increase in the number of work settings for nurses and demographic changes in an increasing U.  S. population (HRSA, 2003). Factors that are causing a decrease in the supply of nurses are: the declining number of nursing school enrollees, graduates and faculty; the aging of the registered nurse workforce; work environment issues leading to job burnout and dissatisfaction; high nurse turnover and vacancy rates; and declines in relative earnings (HRSA, 2003). Due to this critical imbalance between the supply and demand of nurses, the United States is today facing a nursing shortage crisis. Nursing shortage in rural settings: Research shows that nursing shortage as defined by the federal government exists mainly in rural areas of the country that are far away from metropolitan areas. These areas suffer more from nursing shortage than urban areas due to lack of economic resources to compete with urban based employers, inadequate training for nurses to practice in rural settings and dependence on non-hospital care settings in the rural areas. According to a paper published by the National Clearinghouse for Frontier Communities, â€Å"Impacts and Innovations in Frontier America† (December 2004), nurse shortages in frontier and rural communities derive not only from the current national shortage of nurses but also a long-standing trend favoring rural-to-urban migration of the educated, skilled workforce. There is also the issue of money. When examined by rurality, LPNs in rural settings ($21,941) report an income 23% lower than that reported by LPNs in urban settings ($28,408) (NCSBN, 2006). A large number of rural communities are losing existing employment and education opportunities and the paper suggests that the community context of a nurse shortage can be addressed only through community-based development approaches as well as the crafting of healthy rural policies. The Robert Wood Johnson Foundation published a report titled The American Nursing Shortage with the help of its researchers Bobbi Kimball and Edward ONeil. According to this report, even when some people feel a calling for the professions such as nursing, they are deterred by certain dimensions of the lifestyle, such as low pay, compulsory mobility and the need for service in rural areas. Available data and literature suggest that the impact of the nursing shortage on rural and frontier communities varies greatly from community to community. IN some rural places, there is no difficulty in filling vacancies but there may be just a few good paying jobs. However, in most rural areas, recruiting for openings is estimated to take about 60 percent longer to fill than in urban areas (Long 2000). Nurse employers receive many applications but often find applicants do not meet desired qualifications and then, they often have to accept lower qualifications to fill positions. Differences in education between frontier and non-frontier nurses exist both in their basic nursing education and the highest degree earned (FEC, 2003). Fully half of frontier nurses had qualified as RNs through associate degree (ADN) programs, in comparison with 40% of the non-frontier nurses; in contrast, non-frontier nurses were more likely to have attended diploma or BSN programs. Differences remain when looking at highest degree received; 44% of frontier nurses’ highest degree is the ADN, in contrast with 34% of the non-frontier nurses. And, while the percentage of nurses who have earned a bachelors degree is slightly lower among frontier nurses (30% frontier, 33% non-frontier), the percentage who has earned masters degrees is also lower among frontier (7% frontier compared with 10% non-frontier) (FEC, 2003). At Prairie Vista Nursing Home in Holyoke, Colorado, a town of about 1,900 people about 130 miles northeast of Denver, administrators reportedly had to work double shifts to cover shifts after a nurse retired. Recruiting nurses to work in rural areas is difficult to begin with; and, when urban-trained nurses enter rural practice, they often find they are ill-prepared for the demands of the job, contributing to job dissatisfaction and turnover. Once there, they typically find it difficult to access continuing education opportunities that fit their needs. â€Å"When educators bring their knowledge to us, they often do not realize that we practice differently than urban centers do† (rural nurse, quoted in Molinari 2001). In the rural setting, nurses typically fill multiple roles. There is a need for a broad range of skills and cross training in multiple jobs. â€Å"Rural nursing requires a high level of generalist skills and critical thinking† (Fahs, Findholt et al. 2003). Another issue is that the ethnic composition of the rural nurse workforce does not correspond with the population it serves. The ANA Rural Nursing module identifies five factors that affect rural nursing practice: threats to anonymity and confidentiality; traditional gender roles; geographic isolation; professional isolation; and scarce resources (Bushy 2004). Patient safety for nursing shortage in rural settings: Surveys and studies published recently confirm that the shortage of registered nurses is impacting the delivery of health care in the U. S. and negatively affecting patient outcomes. Research now shows that how well patients are cared for by nurses affects their health, and sometimes can be a matter of life or death. These studies have found that (HRSA, 2003): †¢ A total of 53% of physicians and 65% of the public cited the shortage of nurses as a leading cause of medical errors (Harvard School of Public Health, 2002,); A higher proportion of nursing care and a greater number of hours of care by nurses per day are associated with better outcomes for hospitalized patients (Needleman et al. , 2002); †¢ Nursing actions, such as ongoing monitoring of patient’s health status, are directly related to better health outcomes (Kahn et al. , 1990) ; †¢ 126,000 nurses are needed immediately to fill vacancies at our Nations hospitals. Today, 75% of all hospital vacancies are for nurses (American Organization of Nurse Executives, 2002); Low nurse staffing levels have contributed to 24% of unanticipated events in hospitals that resulted in death, injury or permanent loss of function (Joint Commission of Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations, 2002); †¢ Patients who have common surgeries in hospitals with low nurse-to-patient ratios have an up to 31% increased chance of dying. Every additional patient in an average hospital nurses workload increased the risk of death in surgical patients by 7% (Aiken et. al. , 2002); Low nursing staff levels were a contributing factor in 24% of hospitals’ reports of patient deaths and injuries since 1996 (Joint Commission of Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations, 2002); †¢ Less nursing time provided to patients is associated with higher rates of infection, gastrointestinal bleeding, pneumonia, cardiac arrest, and death from these and other causes (Needleman et al. , 2002); and †¢ Nurse executives surveyed indicated that staffing shortages are contributing to emergency department overcrowding and the need to close beds (American Organization of Nurse Executives, 2002). The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations, 2002 has issued a warning that failure to address the problem of nursing shortage in rural areas will result in increased deaths, complications, lengths-of-stay and other undesirable patient outcomes. JCAHO examined 1,609 hospital reports of patient deaths and injuries since 1996 and found that low nursing staff levels were a contributing factor in 24% of the cases (Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations, 2002). New research indicates that a shortage of registered nurses prepared at the baccalaureate and higher degree level is endangering patients. In an article in the September 24, 2003 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association, Dr. Linda Aiken and her colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania found that patients experience significantly lower mortality and failure to rescue rates in hospitals where more baccalaureate-prepared nurses provide direct patient care. At least 1,700 preventable deaths could have been realized in Pennsylvania hospitals alone if baccalaureate-prepared nurses had comprised 60% of the nursing staff and the nurse-to-patient ratios had been set at 1 to 4. Unfortunately, only 11% of PA hospitals have more than 50% of the nursing staff prepared at the baccalaureate level ( Institute of Medicine, 2003). A survey titled â€Å"Views of Practicing Physicians and the Public on Medical Errors†, conducted by the Harvard School of Public Health and the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation reported in the December 12, 2002 issue of the New England Journal of Medicine found that 53% of physicians and 65% of the public cited the shortage of nurses as a leading cause of medical errors. Overall, 42% of the public and more than a third of U. S. octors reported that they or their family members have experienced medical errors in the course of receiving medical care (AACN, 2006). Nurse researchers at the University of Pennsylvania determined that patients who have common surgeries in hospitals with high nurse-to-patient ratios have an up to 31% increased chance of dying. Funded by the National Institute for Nursing Research, the study found that every additional patient in an average hospital nurses workload increased the risk of death in surgical patients by 7% (AACN, 2006). According to an extensive study by Dr.  Jack Needleman and Peter Buerhas, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in May 2002, a higher proportion of nursing care provided by RNs and a greater number of hours of care by RNs per day are associated with better outcomes for hospitalized patients (AACN, 2006). Conclusion: Available data and literature suggest that the issue of nurse shortage is a national one. Yet, the impact of nurse shortage is better seen in the rural areas where nurses are not well paid, existing nurses are not well qualified and patients are dependent on local medical facilities. Because most frontier and rural communities are distant from hospitals, residents may rely on non-hospital based care settings for a greater proportion of their care than their urban counterparts. Due to these reasons, nurse shortage in rural areas has endangered patient safety. Nurses are the primary source of care and support in the health care sector and hence, a sufficient supply of nurses is critical in providing the national and especially the rural population with quality health care. Nurses are expected to play an even larger role in the future.

Individual & Society: Stalin ~ Hitler ~ Mussolini Essay -- Essays Pape

Individual & Society: Stalin ~ Hitler ~ Mussolini The relationship between the individual and society in Europe in the early 20th century, as it pertained to Fascism, Nazism, and Totalitarianism, was based primarily on the fact that there was no individual in the eyes of the state. Individual liberties and expressions were eliminated in order to improve the welfare of the country. Leaders taught conventional ideals and murdered enemies, so as to create one state, composed of individuals whose lives were involuntarily centered around the creation of that State. In 1922, Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Russian Communist party, suffered the first of many strokes that would relieve him of his authority. After leading the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, Lenin had established Communism to reinstate order in the crumbling Russia and protect the rights of the oppressed proletariat. He believed that, only in a Communist society, "'the state ceases to exist,' and 'it becomes possible to speak of freedom.'"1 Lenin stood by the idea that Communism would "render the state absolutely unnecessary" because "no one in the sense of a class" would be suppressed.2 Lenin's successor, Josef Stalin, took the elimination of proletarian suppression to extremes. Stalin and Leon Trotsky-who was with Lenin in forming the Russian Revolution and led the Red Army in the Civil War of 1918-vied for leadership of the Communist party after Lenin's stroke. Although Trotsky seemed to be the inevitable successor, Stalin's status as general secretary of the Communist party gave him "control over the administrative levers of the party" and "allowed him to eliminate all rivals."3 Stalin relieved Trotsky of his authority in the Communist party and exiled him t... ...e Hall, 1996), 263. 2. Ibid., p. 264. 3. Ibid., p. 266. 4. Ibid., p. 267. 5. Ibid., p. 272. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., p. 279. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid., p. 283. 10. Ibid., p. 284. 11. Donald Kagan, et al, The Western Heritage, Brief Edition, Volume II, Since 1715 (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996), 644. 12. Ibid., p. 646. 13. Perry M. Rogers, Aspects of Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996), 300-301. 14. Ibid., p. 301. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. Donald Kagan, et al, The Western Heritage, Brief Edition, Volume II, Since 1715 (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996), 653. 18. Perry M. Rogers, Aspects of Western Civilization: Problems and Sources in History. (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996), 316. 19. Ibid., p. 328.

Amadou Ham Pate Ba

Amadou Ham pate Ba (1901-1991), Malian ethnologist, narrator and author, played an important role in introducing the world to African oral heritage, especially the folktales of West Africa. The man known as the â€Å"living Memory of Africa† he liked to say he was â€Å"one of the eldest sons of the century,† was one of the major intellectual literary figures of the 20th century. The saying with which he will always be associated for (his often quoted statement), that â€Å"In Africa when an old man dies, a library has burned down† has become so famous that it is sometimes used as an African proverb.He was commenting on the loss of African oral heritage, in praise of both old age and oral tradition, which contributes to the historical components of humanities memory. â€Å"The folktale is a key source of oral tradition, as are other forms of narrative and rituals that are considered essential components of cultural anthropology and ethnology†. (folkculture . org) There is a certain characteristic and significance of indigenous knowledge, especially in Africa. Indigenous knowledge has been defined as the local knowledge. Knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society.The expressions traditional local and indigenous knowledge, are used in the literature inter-changeably, is learned through repetition which aids in its retention and reinforcement. Agricultural or desert-based societies slowly created communities that were mostly self- contained and based on self-help. Their approach to problem solving was through ambulated individual or communal experiences and knowledge derived from trial and error. This aggregated validated knowledge improved and increases in time but remained mostly unrecorded. Even in the present information age, agricultural and desert-based communities, have remained practically cut off, thus they have been out of the mere necessity and for the sake of their survival, depending on and making use of their tr aditional unrecorded knowledge†. (Anwar, 1998) Amadou Ba feared that a lot of it is being lost due to rapid urbanization and continuous attrition in the older population. â€Å"Indigenous knowledge is predominantly tacit and embedded in practices and experiences and exchanged within the community through oral communication and demonstration.Recording and disseminating it across communities is not easy† (Anwar. 2005). It’s sometimes fragmented. It does not exist in its totality either in one place or one individual. It is distribution is socially differentiated, based on gender and age. â€Å"When discussing language, ethnic groups, cultures (and subcultures), and religions. The key concepts are diversity and complexity. There are conservatively many hundreds of different ethnics groups. Thus, there are many hundreds of distinct languages and cultures.The sheer number of such groups throughout Africa makes this dimension unique to the continent. † (The Oth er World ch. 6 pg. 187) Amadou Ham pate Ba passed away in 1991, leaving the world a library and an extensive archive to protect the wealth of knowledge that he had collected from fire, which he warned about repeatedly. He said â€Å"that part of every speech is lost to fire; chaos can result from tiny sparks just as a match can lead to a fire that destroys an entire village†. (folkculture. rg) What role do oral traditions play in the displacements and/or migrations of communities? Oral tradition: â€Å"the process of handing down information, opinions, belief, and customs by the word of mouth or by example† (Merriam-Webster unabridged 7th Ed). A transmission of knowledge and institutions through successive generations without written instruction. Thus an inherited principle, standard, or practice serving as the established guide of an individual or group. In comparing different cultures we tend to evaluate the custom of others in light of our own beliefs and values.Mem bers of all cultures assume that their own design for living is the best and only correct way. The belief that one’s own culture is the only true and good way, as well as the tendency to judge other cultures by those standard, is call Ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism serves several important functions for individuals and groups. Certainly about the rightness of one’s beliefs and behaviors reinforces the tendency to confirm and to defend one’s society. Ethnocentrism becomes dysfunctional when beliefs in one’s superiority lead to hostility and conflict. More important, oral traditions can provide a rich history predating the written word. † (The other world ch6 pg. 189) In traditional soufies people tend to regard the way things have always been done as sacred, which stems from the beliefs and practices passed down from generation to generation. Account of first European contacts with black Africa are a study in Ethnocentrism the letters and journals of 1 5th and 16th century explorers, merchants, and missioners, overflowed with lurid descriptions of cannibalism, incest and unbridled lust. Since the Africans did not practice Christianity they were labeled ‘heathens’; since their laws were incomprehensible to the European, they were said to be ‘LAWLESS’; and since their marriage and family practices differed from those prevalent in Europe they were judged to be ‘savages’ and ‘barbarians’. (George 1968) â€Å"Africa was artificially divided to suit the objectives of the colonial governments. Preexisting ethnic, linguistic, and cultural until were ignored. Throughout Africa, closely knit people speaking the same language were suddenly separated†. The other world Ch6 pg. 190) As evident in the class text book (see enclosed references) European colonization of the coast of Africa in 1884 (see fig 6. 2) undoubtedly hasten the displacement and migration of the indigenous people furt her inland toward the desert (see fig 6. 1) so they could control; the rich fertile land. By 1895 (see fig 6. 3) it only got worse. Even today the African map reflects the extraction goals of the imperial powers. ‘’ Moreover, foreigners exploited the natural habit in many parts of the region.For instance, the colonial powers instituted cash crops and export of livestock, which in turn meant widespread clearing of the land and sometimes depletion of the soil. Similarly, Europeans carving up the continent created or heightened local rivalries, which resulted in conflicts that also affected the landscape (ch6 p. 201) Carried to an extreme, ethnocentrism is destructive as evidence by the Nazis in Germany who believed in absolute superiority of the white Aryan race and culture.The result was the displacement and death of millions of people who didn’t fit that category mostly Jews. In American history, each different ethnic, religious, or racial group was thought to be inferior to white Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASP) and therefore deserve less than humane treatment. â€Å"Ethnic divisions are a powerful force today. Ongoing struggles in such diverse states as Angola, Burundi, Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya,Liberia Mauritanian, Nigeria, Ruanda and Sierra Leon may be explained in past by deep-seated ethnic division

A Comparative Analysis of Semco Engineering and Grimsville Borough Counsil (GBC) company

The structure, culture, and teamwork of an organisation have significant effects in its performance and operations. The structure and design are chosen depending on a company’s objectives and functions. Culture and teamwork, on the other hand, are achieved based on the organisation’s design and structure.That is, coordination and cooperation among the stakeholders are dependent on the organisation’s structure. Therefore, organisational structure is a very critical issue in every organisation. This paper investigates on organisational structure and its importance by examining and analysing cases studies of two different organisations.Comparison of Organizational Structure and DesignSemco and Grimsville Borough Council (GBC) are very different in terms of their organisational structure and design. Defining organisational structure, â€Å"it involves issues as how the work of the organisation will be divided and assigned among positions, groups, departments or divi sions and how the coordination necessary to accomplish total organisational objectives will be achieved† (Dalton et al, 1970).In other words, an organisation should be designed based on a structure which can help an organisation achieve its objectives. Semco, has a very flat structure with only four organisational level, utilising a decentralised approach. Basically, a company is said to implement a decentralised structure when decision making is disaggregated into a number of divisions, each making its own decision (Siggelkow & Levithal, 2003).Semco has managed to have a democratic and non-bureaucratic type of organisation by reducing the level of management and allowing the employees to participate in decision making.   The primary purpose of flat organisations is to rapidly respond to customers’ needs or changes in the business environment (Allen, 1998). Semco utilised this type of organisational structure because as an engineering company, it is always subject to technological changes and other changes in its environment.Contrary to the flat structure of Semco, bureaucratic organisation like GBC is tall in structure, consisting of hierarchies with many levels of management (Allen, 1998). GBC has many levels of management and supervision; each department’s management reports to the councillors and to the chief executive while they handle member staff and employees which are at the bottom of the hierarchy.The organisational structure of GBC is considered to be centralized and bureaucratic. This type of structure is obviously the opposite of the decentralised; its decision-making is made only at the upper level of management.Additionally, bureaucracy is a form of organisation which is characterised by a rational, goal-oriented hierarchy, impersonal decision making, formal controls, and subdivision into managerial positions and specialisation of labour (Allen, 1998). Bureaucracy is common to government agencies in which there should be sp ecialisation in different types of public services such as education, social services and others, and formal controls must be practiced in order to ensure satisfactory public service.Comparison of Approaches to Teamwork and TeamworkingAccording to Allen (1998), flat organisations have strong emphasis on teams while Cohen & Bailey (1997) added that team-based organisations, with flat structures can respond quickly and effectively in the fast changing environments. Semco possesses such characteristics as it has become a profitable company with enhanced organisational performance.A team-based organisation also enables the organisation to learn more effectively and because of the combination of team members’ diverse perspectives, decision making is comprehensive (Anonymous, 2006). Diversity of ideas in a team leads to high quality decision making and innovation (West, 2002).Because Semco allows work teams to make decisions, employees and team members are empowered. Employees also undergo training programmes that help them develop and learn new skills within the team, making them an effective and productive part of the team. In other words, Semco gives high acknowledgement on teamwork that almost every decision such as pay rates and working times and pattern are decided by teams.On the other hand, teamwork is not highly regarded at GBC. Senior management are aloof and hard to be approached by their subordinates. Decision making are also performed only by council leader and the chief executive, thus processing of plans and completion of projects are slow. Moreover, GBC is departmentalised but each department is not working together but instead they compete among each other and undermine other department’s activities, resulting to diminished level of services and poor overall performance.The problems of GBC mentioned in the case such as unhappy employees, slow decision making and competition instead of coordination exist because GBC has no teamwork. Tea m-based working can lead to improvements in organisational performance in terms of efficiency and quality (Applebaum & Batt, 1994 on Anonymous) while employees working on teams were found out to have higher levels of involvement and commitment to the organisation (Anonymous, 2006).Comparison of CulturesGenerally, Semco is considered to have a better organisational culture compared to GBC as reflected by each organisation’s performance. Defining organisational culture, it is an organisation’s set of shared behaviours, artefacts, values, beliefs and assumptions that it develops as it learns to cope with the external and internal aspects of survival and success (Oden, 1997).Culture was said to be developed as an organisation interact with its environment thus organisational culture is unwritten. Because Semco and GBC has different organisational structure, its culture also differs; Semco’s culture can be classified as task culture or the type of culture in which or ganisations has strong and cleared implemented objectives and mission and in which teamwork is emphasized because it is the basis on which jobs are designed (Anonymous, 2006).On the other hand, GBC’s culture can be classified as role cultures which is highly formalised, bounded with authority and in which hierarchy dominates relations (Anoymous, 2006).Semco believes in employee empowerment and it is one of their motivations to make employees satisfied and happy with the company. Transparency is also part of Semco’s culture since the company practiced profit-sharing scheme. Employees can have access on financial and strategic data to be able for them to participate actively in decision making. Trust and discipline are the core values of the company, ensuring that each employee is well committed to the organisation.On the contrary, GBC’s value is centred on power; that is, the authority has the right to decide and the employee must only follow resulting to unhappy and unmotivated employees. Employee empowerment is not practice and management does not even acknowledge lower level employees’ concern. Corruption is also suspected to be practiced at GBC along with overused of power because transparency is not being practiced by GBC.

Shakespeare Coursework Essays

Shakespeare Coursework Essays Shakespeare Coursework Essay Shakespeare Coursework Essay My version of Romeo and Juliet is set in Britain in 130 AD. This is just after the Romans have invaded Britain; Hadrians Wall has been built to separate to separate the barbaric Scottish tribes away from the civilised Romans in England. In my story Juliet is the daughter of a Roman soldier, Capulet and Romeo is the son of a leader of one of the Scottish clans, Montague.Role-playThat was the worst party I have ever been to. I cant believe hes done this to me. Actually I cant believe that theyve both done is to me. I mean, its only normal for me to want to kill a Montague, a Montague! Our foe! Why would he not let me? Especially a Montague that dares to come to our party. A barbarian at a Capulet party! What is the world coming to?! All I wanted to do as quickly finish him off. Stab him a couple of times and he would have been dead.Dead! Well, we all know that Romeos no fighter, the weakling! If only I hadnt been near LORD Capulet, he would never have heard me say it and it would all b e over and done with by now. But I was there and he did hear me, how I regret that! Ill never forgive him for humiliating me like that. NEVER! How can HE be the leader of our centurion? HE is the worst leader that we have ever had, as he has proved. I tell you one thing; I will kill Romeo, no matter how long it takes me. I will even kill my uncle to get to get to him. I will KILL Romeo the MONTAGUE.DiscussionIn the first section of Act 1 Scene 5 the main characters are the three servants. They should be frantic and panicked and the atmosphere is very rushed so this helps to set the scene and get the audience involved in the scene. The first servant is very bossy and is very stressed Wheres Potpan that he helps no to take away? He shift a trencher! He scrape a trencher! This should be said very quickly and comically. Then the second servant is quite dumb which the audience finds humorous and thy unwashd too, tis a foul thing. The third servant is very calm and relaxed. The contrast b etween the characters is very funny and makes the audience laugh. The section is set in the kitchen and they are wearing servants costumes. The music playing is the faint echo of the music thats playing in the party sort of bouncing against the wall and the lighting is a bit shady.In the second section the main characters are Capulet and his cousin. When Capulet walks in he is very welcoming and plays the happy host, e is in a party mood and teases the girls into dancing. The atmosphere is very bright and happy and the lighting reflects this. The music is jig-like and very jolly so that the characters can dance. This is set in a huge ballroom that is elaborately decorated to show off Capulets wealth and the costumes are gorgeous dresses for the girls and masks on the young men. But this changes and the audience sees a contrast in his attitude when he talks to the servants as he commands them and speaks to them very rudely. More light, you knaves; and turn the tables up. Then he chan ges again when talking to his cousin and they start to reminisce about their youth. Here, they take a seat in a room next door to ballroom and sit.In the section the main character is Romeo and he has just spotted Juliet. He acts as if hes in a trance is fascinated by her What ladys that which doth enrich the hand of yonder knight. He asks in soft as he is in a daze. He uses similes she hangs upon the cheek of night like a rich jewel in an Ethiops ear and metaphors a snowy dove trooping with crows to compare her to other women so that the audience can see that she is amazing and all other girls are insignificant in comparison with her. Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight; for I neer saw true beauty till this night shows that he has completely forgotten about Rosaline and is totally in love with Juliet and this is done with the use of rhyme.Shakespeare had introduced the idea of courtly love earlier because Romeo was in love with Rosaline, a girl totally out of his reach h e had put her on a pedestal. She totally ignored his approaches and he was left to despair over her rejections. This section is very important because it is the beginning of their love and their doom. The theme is love. Romeo should stand in the shadows and when he sees her, take of his ask to get a better view of Juliet. Juliet is in the spotlight wearing a white dress that shimmers and reflects of the light as she moves. She notices Romeo and then romantic music starts playing, which will play every time they see each other. This is the instrumental violin music, sort of like whats used in Bahz Lurmans Romeo + Juliet.In the fourth section the main characters are Tybalt and Capulet. Tybalt sees Romeo staring at Juliet and is furious that he dares attend a Capulet part. There is a huge contrast from Romeos soft language to Tybalts fiery and dangerous language. He tries to get rid of Romeo Fetch me my rapier boy he asks in a quiet and menacing voice, wanting t kill Romeo quickly and quietly. Capulet sees him and tries to get him to calm down and stop being in a storm) saying that he would not allow Romeo to be killed here in MY house this gives the impression that Capulet would not care if Romeo was murdered outside of his home.But Tybalt does not like this and loses his temper saying Ill not endure him. Capulet is furious and goes to humiliate Tybalt He shall be endured he says in a stern voice as if talking to a child. Tybalt backs down but Capulet keeps on shouting at him and totally humiliates him. Tybalt is fuming to the point that his flesh trembles which shows that hes so angry that hes shaking. He controls his temper because he has to. In a mean whisper he says This intrusion shall, now seeming sweet, convert to bittrest gall. He uses alliteration to show his contempt and the rhyming makes the words more memorable. This gives a sense of foreboding and the audience and knows that something bad will come of the Tybalt situation. The lighting is dark, mayb e a bit of red and there is just one long ominous note of dread.In this section the main characters are Romeo and Juliet. Juliet searches for Romeo and he searches for her. Romeo finds her and pulls her into the next. Romeo and Juliet share a love sonnet which shows that they are both in love; its almost as if their minds are working together and they are in a world of their own. They seem about to start speaking in another sonnet but are interrupted. Although modern audiences might not notice, audiences in Shakespearian times would have. The lighting is very soft and creates a romantic atmosphere. The music is the same as was in the third section when they first saw each other. Shakespeare uses religious language to show the purity and tenderness of their love. Shakespeare shows that Romeo and Juliets love is not fake and the typical courtly love because she doesnt despise him and they both love each other.The main characters in this section are the Romeo, the Nurse, Benvolio and C apulet. Capulet is standing on the stairs and is about to retire to his chambers so he bids his guests goodnight. Juliet is standing behind him. Capulet is still talking but the sound goes over to Romeo. Romeo is standing with the crowd of people in the shadows. Still enchanted by Juliet wants to know who she is and asks the Nurse. The Nurse, who is a crude character, is very talkative.He that can lay hold of her shall have the chinks she says, giving Romeo a clue that Juliet is rich. It dawns on Romeo who Juliet is and his world comes crashing down Is she a Capulet? The party music stops. He is devastated that one of the best things to have happened to him could also be the worst. Benvolio tries to tell him that its all for the best but hes oblivious. The spotlight goes onto Juliet as she walks upstairs, away from him (even more out of reach).In the final section the music playing is still the romantic music remnant of the fifth section and Juliet wants to find out who Romeo is but she doesnt want to be too obvious. When the nurse returns an tells Juliet who Romeo is the music stops and she is very unhappy. My only love sprung from my only hate! she says with despair. She knows that her father will never marry a Montague, a dreaded enemy. This is how marriage was in those times. The father picked out a man, usually of higher class for his daughter and she had little choice about whether she would marry him. A girl could be married at young ages such as fourteen or fifteen. She goes into her bedroom. The audience is left looking at an empty stage.

A Guide to the Japanese Perception of the Color Red

A Guide to the Japanese Perception of the Color Red Red is generally called aka è µ ¤ in Japanese. There are many traditional shades of red. The Japanese gave each shade of red its own elegant name in the old days. Shuiro (vermilion), akaneiro (madder red), enji (dark red), karakurenai (crimson) and hiiro (scarlet) are among of them. Use of Red The Japanese especially love the red that is obtained from safflower (benibana), and it was very popular in the Heian period (794-1185). Some of the beautiful clothing that were dyed with safflower red are well-preserved in the Shousouin at Todaiji Temple, more than 1200 years later. Safflower dyes were also used as lipstick and rouge by court ladies. At Horyuji Temple, the worlds oldest wooden buildings, their walls were all painted with shuiiro (vermilion). Many torii (Shinto shrine archways) are also painted this color. Red Sun In some cultures, the color of the sun is considered yellow (or even other colors). However, most Japanese think that the sun is red. Children usually draw the sun as a big red circle. The Japanese national flag (kokki) has a red circle on a white background. Just like the British flag is called the Union Jack, the Japanese flag is called hinomaru æâ€" ¥Ã£  ®Ã¤ ¸ ¸. Hinomaru literally means the suns circle. Since Nihon (Japan) basically means, Land of the rising sun, the red circle represents the sun. Red in Japanese Culinary Tradition There is a word called hinomaru-bentou æâ€" ¥Ã£  ®Ã¤ ¸ ¸Ã¥ ¼ Ã¥ ½â€œ. Bentou is a Japanese boxed lunch. It consisted of a bed of white rice with a red pickled plum (umeboshi) in the center. It was promoted as a simple, staple meal during the World Wars, a time that was hard to get a variety of foods. The name came from the meals appearance that closely resembled the hinomaru. It is still quite popular today, though usually as a part of other dishes. Red in Festivities The combination of red and white (kouhaku) is a symbol for auspicious or happy occasions. Long curtains with red and white stripes are hung in wedding receptions. Kouhaku manjuu (pairs of red and white steamed rice cakes with sweet beans fillings) are often offered as gifts at weddings, graduations or other auspicious commemorative events. Red and white mizuhiki (ceremonial paper strings) are used as gift wrapping ornaments for weddings and other auspicious occasions. On the other hand, black (kuro) and white (shiro) are used for sad occasions. They are the usual colors of mourning. Sekihan è µ ¤Ã© £ ¯ literally means, red rice. It is also a dish that is served on auspicious occasions. The red color of the rice makes for a festive mood. The color is from red beans cooked with rice. Expressions Including the Word Red There are many expressions and sayings in Japanese that include the word for the color red. Connotations for red in Japanese include complete or clear in expressions such as akahadaka è µ ¤Ã¨ £ ¸, aka no tanin è µ ¤Ã£  ®Ã¤ »â€"ä º º, and makkana uso çÅ"Ÿã  £Ã¨ µ ¤Ã£  ªÃ£ â€ Ã£  .   A baby is called akachan  Ã¨ µ ¤Ã£  ¡Ã£â€šÆ'ã‚“ or akanbou  Ã¨ µ ¤Ã£â€šâ€œÃ¥ Å . The word came from a babys red face. Aka-chouchin  Ã¨ µ ¤Ã¦  Ã§  ¯ literally means, red lantern. They refer to traditional bars that you can cheaply eat and drink at. They are usually located on the side streets in busy urban areas and often have a red lantern lit out front. Other phrases include: akago no te o hineru è µ ¤Ã¥ ­ Ã£  ®Ã¦â€°â€¹Ã£â€šâ€™Ã£  ²Ã£  ­Ã£â€šâ€¹ - To describe something easily done. Literally means, To twist a babys hand.akahadaka è µ ¤Ã¨ £ ¸ - Stark-naked, completely nude.akahaji o kaku è µ ¤Ã¦  ¥Ã£â€šâ€™Ã£ â€¹Ã£   - Be put to shame in public, be humiliated.akaji è µ ¤Ã¥ ­â€" - A deficit.akaku naru è µ ¤Ã£  Ã£  ªÃ£â€šâ€¹ - To blush, to turn red with embarrassment.aka no tanin è µ ¤Ã£  ®Ã¤ »â€"ä º º - A complete stranger.akashingou è µ ¤Ã¤ ¿ ¡Ã¥  · - A red traffic light, a danger signal.makkana uso çÅ"Ÿã  £Ã¨ µ ¤Ã£  ªÃ£ â€ Ã£   - A downright (bare-faced) lie.shu ni majiwareba akaku naru æÅ" ±Ã£  «Ã¤ º ¤Ã£â€š Ã£â€šÅ'㠁 °Ã¨ µ ¤Ã£  Ã£  ªÃ£â€šâ€¹ - You cannot touch pitch without being defiled.

Journal 8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Journal 8 - Essay Example At the ball, she encounters the prince, and this really lifts her mood. However, her joy is short-lived as she leaves the ball bearing in mind she may never see the prince again, but he searches for her using her glass slipper and finally finds her. They live happily ever after. The protagonist in the story is Cinderella who is saddened by the fact that she cannot go to the ball; this is her preliminary state. The Fairy Godmother avails all that Cinderella needs to go, but she also brings in disequilibrium by requiring that she returns before midnight. At the ball, Cinderella’s state of mind is varied and she grows happy when she meets the prince (286). Once again, she is crestfallen because she does not expect to see him again. Disequilibrium occurs when the prince uses her slipper to find her, and it appears that Cinderella might be happy once more. When he does find her, they live together in happiness, which is the ultimate state of mind. The story goes a long way in revealing the culture of those from who it comes. In this case, the story shows that women who are industrious and altruistic are compensated with riches and great joy. In addition, love is the foundation of any relationship and that getting married because of love leads to eternal